Summary
Hiring legally qualified personnel implies
compliance with Federal regulations as well as attaining certifications to
validate operator experience and education with unmanned aerial systems. The
mission is to conduct oceanic environmental studies and BLOS operations over
the open ocean, and subsequently identify the required crew positions to safely
operate the aircraft. Analyzing the General Atomics Ikhana and INSITU ScanEagle
UAS platforms and their system setup will provide insight on how to best
determine crew positions to be filled, training, qualifications, and other
requirements in selecting the most qualified personnel.
Assumptions.
Since these platforms are to be used for open ocean surveillance operations,
the capabilities, limitations, and existing personnel setup will be noted for
each and used as a baseline for personnel selection. Initially based on the
mission area and operating environment, acquiring UAS professionals with
maritime surveillance experience would be ideal. It is also assumed that each
aircraft will need to meet requirements to operate within the national airspace
system (NAS) (Henry, 2014). If operated outside of the 12-nautical mile
boundary of the continental United States, the operators should be aware of air
defense and identification zone (ADIZ) exit/entry considerations under CFR
99.11 (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).
General Atomics Ikhana. In this
mission, a variant of the Ikhana Predator B is to be used, therefore examining
the MQ-9 Predator itself will be used as the baseline source of information. The
aircraft is designed for long-endurance, medium-altitude flight, capable of
reaching altitudes above 40,000 feet, and can carry over 400 pounds of sensors
and 2000 pounds in external under-wing pods (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, 2015). This aircraft requires a minimum of two operators, and
the system equipped with fixed landing gear, which limits the takeoff and
landing areas to runways or prepared surfaces on shore (National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, 2015). For this assignment, crew selection will be
comprised of a pilot and systems operator, with landing and takeoff stations
located ashore.
Boeing INSITU ScanEagle. The
ScanEagle is predominantly used for intelligence, surveillance and
reconnaissance missions, and is deployed via a rail-launch system with recovery
accomplished via hook or net assembly (INSITU, 2016). It is capable of flying
up to 10,000 feet, and is equipped with electro-optical and infrared sensor
suites (EO/IR) (INSITU, 2016). Due to the nature of the launch and recovery
system, it is also assumed that these deployment methods will take place
ashore, with close proximity to the water-line to expedite open ocean
operations (i.e. minimizing fuel traveling over land to get to the maritime
observation area). This aircraft requires two operators, and while airborne
only requiring one for direct control (INSITU, 2016). For this assignment
however, the crew selection for the ScanEagle will be composed of a pilot and
systems operator.
Crew Positions
Based on the assumptions and analysis of the aircraft to be
used, both a pilot and systems operator/co-pilot will be crew positions for the
Ikhana and ScanEagle. When both aircraft are working in tandem, it would be
ideal to have a mission commander/senior operator to oversee and supervise
mission execution of the aircraft. Additional considerations for adequate
determination of crew positions include the complexity of the mission, the
payload types/variants, autonomy level used in the system, and ground support
functions (Marshall, Barnart, Hottman & Shappee, 2011).
Responsibilities.
Primary duties for the designated pilot in command (PIC) include: direct
control of the UAS during takeoff and landing, monitoring systems for anomalies,
and responsibility for safe execution of flight and task completion. The duties
for the co-pilot/systems operator include: airborne control of the UAS as
required, use of mission systems to complete tasking, coordination with
external authorities for clearance, and generation of the flight plan to
accomplish specific task (i.e. create and file flight plan and establish
operating area limitations). Additionally, it is the responsibility of both
operators to accomplish mission checklists (where appropriate), communicate
with one another (i.e. effective CRM use) and continuously monitor the
situation for system and flight irregularities (i.e. potential air conflicts
and emergency procedures). The mission commander is responsible for the overall
coordination and operation of the flight vehicles, and final reporting
regarding mission updates, and debriefs to local air and ground authorities
when required.
Training,
Certifications, and Qualifications
Determining
the qualification, certification, and training requirements per guidance from
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) that personnel will need to complete
prior to conducting operations. From the FAA standpoint, a UAV is an aircraft,
and the “operator/pilot will need to be certified as having the knowledge base
that is determined to be necessary and/or appropriate and who also is
proficient and skilled” (Cooke, Pringle & Pederson, 2006).
Initial
and Refresher Training Requirements
The Federal
Aviation Administration qualification requirements for UAS operators “depend on
the flight profile, size, and complexity of the UAS and whether the flight
operation occurs near a public airport” (Cooke, Pringle & Pederson, 2006). If
the UAS is to be operated during instrument or visual flight rules (IFR/VFR)
within any class of airspace, the operator should “basically have an equivalent
level of aviation knowledge as the pilot of manned aircraft flying in the same
airspace under the same criteria” (Cooke, Pringle & Pederson, 2006).
Ideally,
every aircrew member/pilot should attend baseline UAS training, and follow-on
training for the specific aircraft. Prior experience in similar platforms, such
as the MQ-9 Predator, is preferred for applicants. It is imperative to utilize
the most recent guidelines to adequately address adherence to operations for
UAS within the NAS (Henry, 2014). For refresher training, evaluations provided
by the company to show sufficient skills in standard and nonstandard vehicle
operation and decision making is recommended. UAS pilots having a common
understanding and knowledge level for the regulations set forth to operate in
designated airspace, as well as understanding the rules that impact manned
aviation such as flight safety is important for continued flight operations (Federal Aviation Administration,
2017).
At a minimum, the UAS PIC should have intimate knowledge of the following code
of federal regulations (CFR) that relate to operations within the NAS: 14 CFR 91.111 (Operating Near Other
Aircraft), 14 CFR 91.113 (Right of Way Rules: Except Water Operations), and 14
CFR 91.115 (Right of way Rules: Water Operations) due to the open ocean
environment for this assignment (US Department of Transportation, 2016).
Additional knowledge of 14 CFR 91.155 (Basic Visual Flight Rules [VFR] Weather
Minimums) is highly recommended for safe execution of VFR operations in the
maritime environment (US Department of Transportation, 2016).
BLOS
considerations. Since a great majority of unmanned aircraft are designed to
operate beyond line of sight (BLOS), operators must “essentially provide a certificated
pilot for all but the most basic UAS operations” (Cooke, Pringle &
Pederson, 2006). The FAA also mandates that “UAS pilots provide a certificated
pilot for operations in nearly all conditions in which they might encounter a
manned aircraft” (Cooke, Pringle & Pederson, 2006). For
a UAS pilot to operate an aircraft BLOS, it is recommended that the PIC
demonstrate aeronautical knowledge and qualify for a remote pilot certificate (Federal Aviation Administration,
2017).
This can be accomplished by passing an initial aeronautical knowledge test at an FAA-approved
knowledge testing center, and/or “hold a part 61 pilot certificate other than
student pilot, complete a flight review within the previous 24 months, and
complete a small UAS online training course provided by the FAA” (Federal
Aviation Administration, 2017). Additionally, the PIC is subject to annual
check flights/examinations and required to maintain currency requirements as
directed in 14 CFR 61.56, and 61.57 (US Department of Transportation, 2016).
Flight
currency training requirements. It is recommended to use the manned
aviation requirements as a baseline for currency for UAS pilots, in that the
PIC “shall conduct at least three takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90
days of a flight for the type UAS operated” (Federal Aviation Administration,
2017). For
type model certification and training, the ASTM F38 is parallel to manned
aircraft, and serves as a recommendation that is based on the type
certification model, where the pilot receives a license based on a specific
unmanned aircraft and a specified pilot position within that UAS platform (Cooke,
Pringle & Pederson, 2006).
UAS Operator Selection
The intent with this section is to provide a
minimum and ideal set of criteria that can be used to identify the most
qualified applicants. As a result, the minimum expectations for all UAS aircrew
members (mission commander, UAS PIC, and co-pilot/systems operator) is to be
able to accomplish tasking in any crew position (i.e. meet the responsibilities
of duty as listed previously) satisfy the training requirements to serve as
PIC, and meet the following system and medical requirements. Using the UAS crew
member interview checklist in this section will aid in optimal selection of
aircrew.
System
requirements. Since the intended mission area is in the maritime
environment, the ability to consistently and clearly identify objects of
interest using electro-optical or infrared (EO/IR) visual sensors is important.
Familiarity with optical sensor assemblies as well as the radio systems used to
communicate with different crew members is also recommended. “The ability of
the crew to communicate and pass the control of the vehicle from one member to
another has an enormous impact on UAS performance” (Marshall, Barnart, Hottman
& Shappee, 2011).
Medical
requirements. Sticking with the recommendation that all UAS crewmembers are
required to fulfill PIC requirements, attaining an FAA Class II medical
certificate will also be required as described in 14 CFR 67 (Federal Aviation
Administration, 2017). In addition to attaining and maintaining a valid medical
certificate, the UAS crew members are also subject to alcohol and drug
regulation per 14 CFR 91.17. Due to the nature of the mission commander duties
serving as a supervising role, it is recommended that the user must maintain a
Class III medical certificate at a minimum. “Certain UAV flights may not
require the operator to meet the same medical standards necessary for the pilot
of a manned aircraft performing the same flight activity as the UAV” (Cooke,
Pringle & Pederson, 2006).
UAS
crew member interview checklist. The items in figure 1 below are
recommended for use by company hiring authorities as a guideline for
determining UAS crew member suitability for the maritime mission.
Figure 1. Proposed UAS crew member
interview checklist.
References
Cooke, N. J.,
Pringle, M. H., & Pedersen, H. (2006). Human
factors of remotely operated vehicles. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier
Publications.
Federal Aviation Administration. (2015). Entering, exiting and flying in
United States airspace. Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/us_restrictions/airspace/
Federal Aviation Administration. (2017). Unmanned aircraft systems: becoming a pilot.
Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/uas/getting_started/fly_for_work_business/becoming_a_pilot/
Henry,
J. (2014, August). FAA regulation of drone operations: commercial use of drones
in a holding pattern. Aviation Law: For
the Defense, 2(1), 48-53.
INSITU.
(2016). ScanEagle information sheet. Retrieved
from https://insitu.com/information-delivery/unmanned-systems/scaneagle#1
Marshall,
M. D., Barnhart, R. K., Hottman, S. B., Shappee, E., & Most, M. T. (2011). Introduction
to unmanned aircraft systems. New York, NY: CRC Publishing.
National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2015, November 16). NASA Armstrong fact sheet: Ikhana Predator B unmanned science and
research aircraft system. Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-097-DFRC.html
US Department of Transportation. (2016). Federal Aviation Administration Order JO
7200.23: Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS). Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/FAA_JO_7200_23_2.pdf
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